【by Maria Korman】
During the second century AD, Rome was at its zenith. This was a golden age, a time of thriving Roman art, government, culture, and architecture. It was then, 117 AD, that the emperor Hadrian came to the throne. His works and architecture are some of the best-preserved and most recognized Roman art today, and his impact on Rome in his time was immeasurable. And as most rulers of his time, Hadrian strategically utilized architecture to leave his imprint on Rome and to create not only a public image of himself but a legacy. Since the time of Augustus, building one’s way into power had been an established tradition and was greatly encouraged and expected (Beard 413). Hadrian harnessed his building programs, especially the Pantheon, to solidify his reputation as an emperor who cared about his people and honored both the Senate and the traditions of old. Through architecture, particularly the Pantheon, Hadrian paid homage to his predecessors while securing his own prestige.
Hadrian was the adopted son of Trajan, who had worked hard to surround himself with a legacy of power. After Trajan’s death, it was revealed that Trajan had adopted Hadrian and thus established him as next-in-line for the throne. Trajan’s name was one greatly respected and admired in the Roman world. Naturally, senators who had respected Trajan were suspicious of his so-called adopted son. There was much hostility and doubt as to whether or not Hadrian had been Trajan’s true heir (Stambaugh 76). There was also controversy attached to the way he inherited the throne. The adoption was announced at the very last minute, and there were “rumors of poisoning” and suspected medding of Plotina, Trajan’s wife (Beard 420). Adoption as a means of succession in Rome had always been seen as a sort of second-best option, and was not viewed favorably (Beard 420). In this climate of distrust, Hadrian realized it was incredibly important for him to build his reputation with care. Hadrian strategically utilized his buildings and architectural works to create a public image grounded in Augustan tradition and reverence to “the memory of Trajan” (Stambaugh 77). Historian Mary Boatwright writes that Hadrian tried to follow in Trajan’s footsteps, emulating his architecture (Boatwright 30). Just as Trajan’s Baths and Circus were built to “please the population as a whole” and “maintain popularity” for the emperor, so too did many of Hadrian’s works (Boatwright 30). The Pantheon, for one, as a temple in which the public could worship, was beneficial to the Roman subjects. Furthermore, Hadrian took inspiration from the Forums of Caesar and Augustus in creating the Pantheon. The use of Greek columns and principles of architecture was clearly a nod to the Forums. Moreover, the Pantheon was also an echo of the Mausoleum of Augustus, which too was an enormous round shape. In this way, Hadrian was calling on people’s respect for established traditions, and associating himself with them. And despite these rocky beginnings, or perhaps because of them, by the end of his reign Hadrian had built a name for himself no less revered than his adoptive father’s.
Hadrian got extensively involved in many of the building projects he initiated, micromanaging them and creating policies to best ensure their execution. Hadrian was incredibly interested in Greek and Egyptian architecture. In fact, writes Beard, he was “an inveterate tourist, more often abroad than at home” (Beard 405). In his travels, he acquired a great passion for architecture, and his involvement was a testament to this. However, this personal involvement in the “religious and social administration of Rome’s neighborhoods” was largely unheard of (Boatwright 24). Under the republic, improvement of the city had always been left to the elite, who either neglected this responsibility or abused its power. And Augustus’ reign, though more involved, had set a precedent for bureaucracy and letting others oversee daily Roman operations. Hadrian, however, went to great lengths to get involved. Moreover, he considered the people’s needs. His building programs created jobs for tens of thousands of Roman citizens (Boatwright 20). Many of Hadrian’s buildings were made from “concrete w/ brick facing”, which played two roles. This material was more durable and suited against floods and weather, but it also did not necessitate much skill from the workers (Boatwright 21). This was an antonym to the hallmark of Augustus’ architecture, which was built mostly from travertine-faced brick and required a great deal of knowledge and expertise from its workers. Hadrian’s work allowed for a much greater participation of unskilled layman workers, who could pour concrete, transport material, and do other menial work (Boatwright 22). Furthermore, most of Hadrian’s building projects took place on vacant land. Hadrian consistently showed concern for not displacing existing buildings or residential areas, unlike many of his predecessors. In fact, he went as far as to put laws into place that prevented the demolition of houses (Boatwright 22). Hadrian’s projects, Boatwright concludes, had a “clear socioeconomic pattern” that bettered the lives of the Roman “unskilled masses” (Boatwright 24).
Hadrian also utilized his programs to get in good standing with the Senate. He frequently collaborated with them and involved the Senate by giving them the power to ratify his construction projects (Boatwright 28). The senatorial ranks profited indirectly as well because many of them controlled the mines and quarries, sources of tile and marble materials from which Hadrian’s grand works were constructed (Boatwright 28). The Senate had long been itching for power and recognition. Thus, Hadrian’s project administration policies were a wise and deliberate move on his part to gain their support. Allowing them a say in the policies he created brought them honor and prestige and minimized their displeasure with him.
The Pantheon, an enormous temple dedicated to all the gods, was the most defining construction of Hadrian’s reign. Its sheer size was enough to inspire wonder: it was the largest dome in the world at the time (Kleiner 12). The temple interior, shaped as a cylinder, has a diameter of 142 feet, and the dome itself is 142 feet from the floor (Kleiner 12). The Pantheon is also one of the most well-preserved ancient buildings of all time. To this day, it stands largely intact and open to visitors. And even in modern times it dominates as the world’s largest unreinforced dome of concrete (Kleiner 14).
From the north, entrance side, the Pantheon has a traditional, rectangular-shaped porch with eight columns spanning its width (Stambaugh 78). Hadrian’s choice to use columns was clearly a nod to Greek tradition, long established and revered, a way to lend his architecture and himself credibility. One of Hadrian’s inspirations for the Pantheon had evidently been Augustus’ temple of Mars Ultor, which had a similar columned porch and traditionally Greek style. The Pantheon’s foundation is basalt, vital for its strength in supporting the colossal dome (Kleiner 12). Inside, the temple itself is a concrete cylinder upon which the dome rests. The dome itself is a marvel of architecture, even by today’s standards. The dome, Boatwright mentions, is meant to symbolize the “vault of the heavens”. On the inside, this dome is pockmarked with coffers. This serves not just an aesthetic purpose, decorating the inside of the structure with patterned squares, but a practical one as well. The coffers reduce mass near the top and lessen the dome’s weight without “weakening its structure, to prevent collapse” (Kleiner 13). Moreover, the dome’s thickness decreases the closer it gets towards the oculus at the top, a 30-foot opening and the only light source illuminating the temple. This oculus, or opening, lets in natural light in the shape of a disk, which moves across the temple as the sun rises and sets and conveys a symbolic reminder of the gods. Hadrian may have been influenced by his travels in Egypt where he learned of the Egyptian gods, particularly the Egyptian emphasis on the sun god. This oculus is meant to remind the beholder of the heavens, and to symbolize the connection between heaven and earth, god and mortal. The inside of the temple is an enormous, vast space “uninterrupted by supporting solids”, which was unusual for the times (Kleiner 13). As Kleiner writes, it has a way of enclosing people “without imprisoning them”. Hadrian had a clear fascination for capturing closed space and using concrete in new, imaginative ways (Stambaugh 80).
The Pantheon was more than just another temple adorning the streets of Rome. It was a mesh of the traditional and the novel, it was an incredible feat of engineering and art. It was simultaneously a statement of Hadrian’s power and his respect for tradition. In echoing Greek ideas of architecture, Hadrian appealed to Roman society’s deep-seated admiration for Greece and its culture. Even the inscription on the Pantheon, which credited the emperor Agrippa with its construction, was Hadrian’s subtle way of associating himself with Augustan times (Kleiner 13). There is a common misconception that Hadrian was being modest in crediting another with building the temple. However, this was much more likely the result of careful political strategy. The Pantheon was also representative of Hadrian as a person and the public persona he tried to convey. Historian Hibbert writes that Hadrian was a man of “highly cultivated tastes” who harbored a “love for Greece” (Hibbert 59). Kleiner agrees, calling Hadrian a “lover of all the arts” (Kleiner 10). The emperor himself was somewhat of an architect, heavily involved in the design of his villa at Tivoli (Kleiner 13).
Since the times of the very first Roman king, and even in Rome’s Republic days, architecture had been a vessel and a political tool. Architecture could reflect the folly and financial irresponsibility of a leader, or carry a carefully-crafted social message. Hadrian’s architecture and building policies intended to portray him as a down-to-earth ruler and man of the people. And in fact, Hadrian’s image was largely consistent with his actions. It seems that he truly did have his people’s interests in mind. His building policies, which “touched all segments of the population” and created labor for the masses, were transformative. He was even frequently seen amongst the public, bathing with them at the public baths (Boatwright 27). Moreover, Hadrian had been preceded by a time of tyrants, disputes over the throne, assassinations, and abuses of power. The Rome Hadrian created, writes Boatwright, was a “Greco-Roman world at peace” (Boatwright 238). In his heavy emphasis on both tradition and innovation, Hadrian left an undeniable mark on urban Rome. His Pantheon continues to stand as a symbol and testament to one of the most peaceful, effective reigns in all Roman history.
Bibliography
Beard, Mary. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. Profile Books, 2016.
Boatwright, Mary T. Hadrian and the City of Rome. Princeton Univ. Press, 1987.
Gardner, Helen, and Fred S. Kleiner. Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Cengage Learning, 2021.
Hibbert, Christopher. Rome: The Biography of a City. Penguin, 2001.
Stambaugh, John E. The Ancient Roman City. The Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1992.